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Ap Psychology
created by Ashley | 10/04/2009 @ 10:37 AM | 21 views
AP Psychology Study Gude
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History
Schools of Thought
Perspectives
Biological
links between events in the brain and behavior/ mental processes
Cognitive
having to do with mental processes like memory, perception, and language
Humanistic -Existential
people are basically good, free will
Psychodynamic
conscious choice and self-direction
Learning
behavior caused by experience and learning
Social-cognitive - people can modify environments and engage in intentional learning
Sociocultural
influences of ethnicity, gender, culture and socioeconomic status on behavior
Fields
Clinical - help people with psych. disorders
Counseling - help with adjustment problems, less serious disorders
School - assist students with problems that interfere with learning
Educational - design curriculum and instructional methods for schools
Developmental - changes throughout the lifespan
Personality - define human traits
Social - behavior and thought in social situations
Experimental - conduct research
Industrial - people and work
Organizational - people in organizations
Human factors - user-friendly tech. systems
Consumer - shoppers
Health - behavior and physical health
Sport - strategies for athletes
Biology
Neurons
send messages to the brain
neurotransmitters - chemicals that allow messages to travel
glial cells - remove dead neurons and waste products
made up of:
cell body - nucleus
dendrites - receive incoming messags
axon - sends outgoing messages
myelin - insulates neuron to keep electric impulse
Afferent Neurons - sensory information
Efferent Neurons - motor
Neural Impulses - Galvani
messages travel via electrochemical impulses
chloride ions create a negative charge (polarize the neuron with a negative resting potential)
positive sodium ions creative a positive charge (depolarize)
all-or-none principal - each fire is the same strength
refractory period - period when neuron cannot fire
synapse - space between neurons
Chemicals
Acetylcholine - muscle contractions, memory
Dopamine - learning, memory, emotional arousal. Connected to Parkinsons and Schizophrenia
Noradrenaline - speeds up heartbeat, mood disorders
serotonin - sleep
endorphins - happy feelings
Nervous System
central nervous system - brain and spinal cord
spinal cord - transmits messages to the brain, reflexes
gray matter - spinal reflexes, no myelin
white matter - messages to and from the brain
peripheral nervous system - neurons
somatic nervous system - sight, sound, smell, temp., body position, etc.
autonomic nervous system - heartbeat, respiration, digestion, etc.
sympathetic - emotional responses
parasympathetic - digestion and other processes that restore the body's energy
Brain
lesion - injury that impairs a behavior or function
Measuring
EEG - brain waves
CAT scan - 3d pic. of the brain using x-rays
PET scan - brain activity
MRI - magnetic field, blood flow
Disorders
epilepsy - seizures involving sudden neural discharges
aphasia - disruption of language
Wernicke's aphasia - impairs comprehension
Broca's aphasia - speak slowly and in simple sentences
Left Brain - logic
Right Brain - creativity
Parts
medulla - vital functions
pons - bridge from spine to brain
cerebellum - balance, motor functions
reticular activating system - attention, sleep, arousal
thalamus - sensory stimulation
hypothalamus - motivation and emotion, hunger, thirst, sexual behavior
limbic system - memory
amygdala - violent behavior
Cerebral Cortex
frontal lobe- organization, planning
motor cortex - frontal lobe, movement
parietal lobe - pain, temperature
somatosensory cortex - cold, warm, touch, pain, movement (part of parietal lobe)
temporal lobe - hearing, speech, emotions
occipital lobe - sight
Endocrine System
system of ductless glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream
gland - organ that secretes chemical substances
pituitary gland - secretes growth hormone, prolactic, antidiuretic hormone, etc.
prolactic - maternal instinct
antidiuretic - paternal instinct
oxytocin - stimulates labor
Hypothalamus - controls pituitary gland
pineal gland - melatonin, sleep cycle
thyroid gland - thyroxin, metabolism
adrenal glands - corticosteroids, resist stress, adrenaline
Sensation and Perception
sensation - stimulation of sensory receptors
perception - inner representation of the world
Thresholds
absolute threshold - weakest amount of stimulus that can be distinguished from no stimulus at all (Fechner)
psychophysicists - study relationship between physical stimuli and perception
method of constant stimuli - method of determining thresholds
psychophysical - bridging the gap between the physical and psychological worlds
pitch - highness or lowness of a sound determined by the frequency of sound waves
difference threshold - minimum difference in intensity to be detected
Weber's constant - fraction b which energy must be increased so that a difference will be perceived
just noticeable difference - min. amount an energy must change in order for a difference to be perceived
signal detection theory - view that perception involves the interaction of physical, biological, and psychological factors
feature detectors - neurons that fire in response to specific features of sensory information
Sensory Adaptation
sensitization - becoming more sensitive to a stimulation, positive adaptation
Vision
Visible light - part of the electromagnetic spectrum that stimulates the eye
Eye
Light passes through the cornea (covers the front of the eye's surface)
The amount of light that passes through is determined by the iris, the colored part of the eye
Once light passes through the pupil, it hits the lens which focuses the light
Next, the light reaches the retina which contains photoreceptors (rods and cones) that are sensitive to light.
fovea - most sensitive area of the retina
blind spot - insensitive visual stimuli
rods - sensitive to light intensity
cones - sensitive to color
Then the bipolar cells send messages to the ganglion cells, which form the optic nerve.
The optic nerve then sends the image to the occiptal lobe
visual acuity -sharpness of vision
presbyopia - brittle lens
afterimage - lingering visual impression made by a removed stimulus
Color blindness
trichromat - normal color vision
monochromats - sensitive only to light and dark
dichromats - see only two colors
opponent process theory - color vision made possible by three cones, some respond to red-green, some to blue-yellow, and some just to light
Trichromatic theory - color vision is made possible by three types of cones each individual for a different color
Visual Perception
closure - fill in the gaps
figure-ground perception - perceive geometric forms against a background
proximity - group objects that are near each other
similarity - group objects similar in appearance
continuity - perceive a series of points as having unity
common fate - group objects that move together
top-down - using the context or previous knowledge to organize patterns
bottom-up - using the parts of a pattern to form the big picture
Illusions
Autokinetic effect - perceive a stationary light in the dark as moving
stroboscopic motion - illusion of motion generated by a series of stationary images shown in succesion
Phi Phenomenon - perception of movement as a result of sequential presentation of stimuli
Depth Perception
monocular cues - suggest depth with only one eye
perspective - cue for depth base on the coming together of parallel lines in the distance
interposition - placing of one object in front of another
shadowing - opaque objects produce shadows
texture gradient - closer objects have more detailed surface
motion parallax - nearby objects move more rapidly
binocular cues - both eyes
retinal disparity - difference in the image cast by an object as it moves closer or further away
convergence - inward movement of the eyes as they attempt to focus on an object moving closer
Perceptual Constancy
perceive objects as maintaing their size, color, shape, and brighteness even though conditions make them appear otherwise
Hearing
Ear
Outer ear - shaped to funnel sound waves to the ear drum
Middle ear - contains the ardrum and three small bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup)
Inner ear - cochlea, contains the basilar membrane and the organ of Corti
Pitch Perception
place theory - pitch determined by the section of the basilar membrane that vibrates in response to sound
frequency theory - pitch determined by the frequency of neural impulses generated by the sound
Deafness
conductive deafness -caused by damage to the middle ear
sensorineural deafness - caused by damage to the inner ear
Smell, Taste, and Touch
olfactory nerve - smell
taste cells
two-point threshold - assess sensitivity to pressure
Pain
Phantom limb pain
Gate theory
Kinesthesis - body position
vestibular sense - upright
semicircular canals - control balance
Conciousness
What is Consciousness?
Sensory Awareness of environment
Selective attention - focus of consciousness on a particular stimulus
Direct Inner Awareness - knowledge of one's own thoughts, feelings, and memories with the use of sensory organs.
Freud
Preconscious - not in awareness but easily brought to consciousness
Unconscious - ideas and feelings not available to awareness
nonconscious - not conscious, such as growing hair.
knowledge of self, unique
Waking state
Sleep and Dreams
circadian rhythm - cycles connected with the earth's rotation
EEG - measures electrical activity during sleep
Stages:
Four stages of NREM
One stage of REM
1. Alpha waves - low-amplitude.
2. theta waves - slow, rolling eye movements. Accompanied by a hypnagogic state. Drowsiness between wake ans sleep. Hallucinationatoy
Stage one is the lightest stage of sleep
3. Sleep spindles, rapid brain activity. Stage 2
4. Delta waves (Stages 3 & 4) strong, slow brain waves
5. REM sleep. Paradoxical because EEG shows arousal similar to waking state. Dreams
Functions
lack of sleep comparable to being drunk
REM sleep and deep sleep both connected to memory
Dreams
Freud - dreams = unconscious urges
activation-synthesis model - dreams reflect cognitive activity by the RAS synthesized into a pattern by the cerebral cortex
Disorders
Insomnia - inability to fall asleep
Narcolepsy - falls asleep suddenly and irresistibly
Apnea
Sleep terrors - more severe than nightmares, during deep sleep
Bed-wetting
Hypnosis
altered state of consciousness in which people appear to be highly suggestible and behave as if in a trance
Passivity - await instructions and suspend planning
Narrowed attention - focus on a voice or spot of light
False memories and hypermnesia
Suggestibility
Playing unusual roles - age regression
Perceptual distortions - hallucinations
Posthypnotic amnesia
Posthypnotic suggestion
Role theory - people act as though hypnotized
Response set theory - people do what is expected
Neodissociation theory - splitting of consciousness
Transcendental mediation - cope with stress
Biofeedback - use of information about a bodily function so that the organism can gain control of the function
Altered States
psychoactive substances - drugs
Depressants - alcohol, slow the central nervous system
Opiates - derived from poppy seeds
Barbituarets and Methaqualone
Stimulants - amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine
Hallucinogenics - marijuana, LSD
Learning
relatively permanent change in behavior
classical conditioning - Pavlov
reflex - unconditioned response to stimulus
conditioned response - learned response to stimulus
delayed conditioning, simultaneous conditioning, trace conditioning
taste aversion
extinction & spontaneous recovery
generalization - bunnies --> anything white and furry
discrimination
high order conditioning - conditioned stimulus learned by being paired with an earlier conditioned stimulus
meat powder--->bell---->light
flooding - fear stimuli presented continuously in the absence of harm to extinguish fear
systematic desensitization
counterconditioning - pleasant stimuli associated with fear evoking stimuli
operant conditioning - Skinner, reinforcement
Memory
Explicit - specific knowledge
how to
episodic memories
semantic memory - general knowledge
retrospective memory - past events
prospective memory - do things in the future
encoding, storage, retrieval
Language
Cognition - mental activity involved in understanding and communicating info.
concept - mental category
algorithm - procedure like in math for solving a problem
systematic random search - list every possible combination
heuristics - rules of thumb, shortcuts
means-end analysis - reduce distance between problem and goal
mental set - use solutions for similar problems
incubation - letting it simmer for awhile
functional fixedness
deductive reasoning - conclusions ---> premises. Proofs
inductive reasoning - backwards proof
representativeness heuristic - based on what it represents
availability heuristic - based on easy examples
anchoring and adjustment heuristic
Language
phonemes - basic sounds
morphemes - smalles units of language. (jump---> jump - ed)
inflections - change forms to indicate relations
linguistic relativity hypothesis - language influences our perception of the world
Disorders
psychological disorders - patterns of behavior or mental processes that are connected impairment of functioning
Criteria
unusual
faulty perception
hallucinations
ideas of persecution
severe personal distress
self-defeating
dangerous
socially unacceptable
Classification
Clinical syndromes - substance abuse, anxiety and mood disorders, schizophrenia
Personality disorders - maladaptive ways of perceiving others
General Med. Conditions
Psychosocial and Environmental Disorders
Global Assessment of Functioning
Anxiety Disorders
Phobias
Panic Disorder
Generalized Anxiety
OCD
PTSD
Acute Stress Disorder
concordance - agreement
GABA, benzodiazepines - treatments
Dissociative Disorders
Dissociative Amnesia
Dissociative Fugue
Dissociative Identity Disorder
Depersonalization Disorder
Somatoform Disorders
Conversion - la belle indifference
Hypochondria
Mood Disorders
Major Depression
bipolar disorder(manic-depressive)
Schizophrenia
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